The Apollo Programme

History of the Apollo Programme

The formal announcement of a lunar landing programme came in May of 1961, when President Kennedy spoke these words to Congress:

U.S. President John F. Kennedy, 25^th May 1961 I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. No single space program in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.

The Apollo project started with a tragedy. On 27 January 1967, NASA astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee died in a fire in their capsule, during a routine launch sequence test.

At about 18:30 local time (it was probably) Roger Chaffee said: Fire, I smell fire!
A few seconds later Edward White shouted: Fire in the cockpit!

According to the emergency escape procedures, the astronauts had been able to leave the capsule in a minimum of 90 seconds, but that time had never been accomplished… During the fire, the crew was not able to open the hatch and the personnel on the tower could hardly approach the capsule, due to the intense heat and enormous clouds of smoke.

It took the peronnel more than five minuts to open the hatch, when they had open, they found three bodies…
After examination of the bodies, doctors found out that the astronauts died from asphyxiation, carbon monoxide poisoning and (less) burns. The spacesuits of the astronauts were not completely burnt, Chaffee’s suit was burnt for 15%, White’s suit for 20% and Grissom’s suit for 70%. After the tragedy, flight AS-204 was renamed to Apollo 1.

After the accident, there were no launches of the Saturn IB rocket for nearly a year. The first launch of a Saturn IB after the tragedy, took place in January 1968.

The Saturn IB missions

The first launch of a Saturn IB launch vehicle took place on 26^th February 1966, on that day AS-201 was launched. The second launch was AS-203 on 5 July 1966. The third launch took place on 25 August 1966, with AS-202.
After the disaster on the launchpad, AS-204 was launched on January 21^st 1968, afterwards the mission was called Apollo 5. All these rockets were unmanned.

After the Apollo project, the Saturn IB was used for the Apollo-Soyuz project and the flights to Skylab.

The only manned mission during the Apollo project launched with the Saturn IB, was Apollo 7, on 11 October 1968. This mission was NASA’s first three man mission. The astronauts Walter Schirra, Donn Eisele and Walter Cunningham tested all equipment in Earth orbit, including long and short SPS burns (burn of CSM-engine). The mission ended on 22 October 1968, with a splash-down in sea. The crew had been in space for almost 11 days.

Compared to the Mercury and Gemini capsules missions, the crew had a lot of freedom of motion. The crew was also able to make hot meals. There was also the first live national TV from space during a manned space flight.

The Saturn V missions

Although, the Saturn IB was a powerful rocket, certainly compared to the Redstone, Atlas-D, Titan II rockets, it did not have enough power to escape from Earth’s gravity completely. There was a far more powerful rocket needed to achieve that.

This rocket, the huge Saturn V, was 363 feet tall. It was the biggest liquid fuelled rocket ever and the most powerful rocket ever flown by man.

The huge length of the Saturn V required a new Vehicle Assembly Building on Cape Canaveral. This big building has a height of 36 stores, high enough to ride out the Saturn V rocket. The VAB is now still in use to prepare several launch vehicles including, of course, the remaining Space Shuttles.

The first Saturn V (AS-501) took place on 9 November 1967, this mission is now known as Apollo 4. The second launch of the Saturn V was on 4 April 1968, the mission AS-502, is now called Apollo 6. After the Apollo project, an SIV-B stage was modified to serve as Skylab.

The Saturn V was the rocket to go to the Moon, but more was needed to make a lunar landing successful. The LM, which was constant behind schedule, was approved by NASA for a lunar landing no earlier than January 1968.

The lunar landing would be something like this:

1. launch of the Saturn V rocket
2. In orbit, the CSM separates from the SIVB stage, with LM
3. CSM turns around and docks with the LM
4. After docking, the CSM and LM are maneuvered out of the SIVB stage
5. CSM and LM turn around, towards the Moon
6. LM undocks and lands on the Moon
7. LM ascends from the Moon and docks with CSM
8. LM is dropped in lunar orbit
9. CSM burns engine to go home
10. In Earth orbit, SM is separated from the CM (together CSM)
11. Astronauts in CM return to Earth

Towards the Moon

The first manned flight, launched with a Saturn V rocket, was Apollo 8. Launched on December 21^st 1968 it became a historical mission, the astronauts Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders were the first men to fly around the Moon. As they did, they made pictures of Earth, from deep space.

In earlier schedules, Apollo 9 was to be the first mission in lunar orbit, but the political pressure forced NASA to fly around the Moon during Apollo 8. There was no LM during this mission, it was replaced by a probe of the same weight.

The mission had its climax on Christmas Eve 1968, when Earth was recorded from lunar orbit. At the same time, astronauts read the first part of the Bible:

In the beginning, God created the heaven and the Earth.
And the Earth was without form and void…

Apollo 8 crew, 24^th Dec 1968

When the pictures of Apollo 8 were spread out over the world, people saw another view of planet Earth, a tiny blue planet in the endless universe. The crew made 10 lunar orbits, before going back to Earth. Re-entry took place on 27 December 1968.

A few months later, 3 March 1969, Apollo 9 was launched. The astronauts James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell Schweickart were allowed (again) to give names to their spacecraft, CSM: Gumdrop LM: Spider. Apollo 9 was the first mission with a complete lunar landing equipment. However, the equipment was tested in Earth orbit. The mission had a duration of 10 days and 1 hour. Re-entry took place on March 13 1969.

The final test for the lunar landing was launched on May 18 1969. This was Apollo 10, CSM: Charlie Brown, LM: Snoopy. The lunar module was used in this mission to approach the landing site of the next mission. Eugene Cernan and Thomas Stafford tested the lunar module. There were only 47,000 feet between the LM and the lunar surface. At the same time, John Young kept the CSM in lunar orbit. After the LM docked with the CSM, the crew went home, on 26 May 1969.

First Lunar Landing

The astronauts chosen for the big event were Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Micheal Collins. On July 16^th 1969 Apollo 11, CSM: Columbia, LM: Eagle was launched from Cape Canaveral, Launch Complex 39 A. Destination: the Moon.

The trip to the Moon was without big problems, but the problems were there when the Eagle went beyond the LM of Apollo 10. The crew in the LM got a 1202 alarm, however, Houston said that this was an executive overflow of the computer. The computer on board the LM could not process all the data. Armstrong and Aldrin had to land the Eagle manually. After minutes of tension, Armstrong said:

Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed.

Neil Armstrong

The Eagle had landed on the Moon! Landing site: Mare Tranquillitatis (Sea of Silence). The crew immediately began to prepare the LM for take-off, in case of an emergency ascent. In the meanwhile, Micheal Collins kept the CSM in lunar orbit.

On a request of Armstrong and Aldrin, a scheduled sleep and meal were postponed. After that, the astronauts began preparations for the EVA (walk on the Moon).

NASA won the space-race on 21^st July 1969, 03:56:15 UTC after Neil Alden Armstrong had set foot on the surface of the Moon!

The whole of the developed world witnessed the first words of Armstrong on the Moon:

That’s one small step for man, but, a giant leap for mankind.

Neil Armstrong

Immediately after the first step and phrase, Armstrong collected samples and rocks, again, in case the LM had to make an emergency take-off.

A few moments later, Aldrin also came down the ladder. He posed for the camera,which was held by Neil Armstrong. This was going on for the entire mission, Armstrong was making the pictures. In the excitement, both Armstrong and Aldrin had forgotten that it would be nice if Aldrin would take some pictures of Armstrong.

After a few minutes, Armstrong red the text on a plaque, which was (and is) affixed to a leg of the descent stage of the Eagle. On the plaque were two globes of Earth, the signature of the Apollo 11 astronauts and the signature of the president of the USA. There were also a few words on it:

Here men from the planet Earth
first set foot upon the Moon
July 1969 A.D.
We came in peace for all mankind.

Approximately 2.5 hours after the first step of Armstrong, the crew went back into the LM. 21 hours and 36 minutes after touchdown, the Eagle ascended from the lunar surface. The LM docked with the CSM 4 hours after lunar lift-off.

After that, the crew went home. Re-entry and splash down were 24^th July 1969.

Late president Kennedy had fulfilled his promise, men had walked on the Moon before the end of the decade and returned back home safely.

The astronauts were received as heroes. 'Ticker tape parades', speeches and other PR stunts created goodwill for NASA and the United States.

Apollo 12 was the second lunar landing. Oceanus Procellarum (ocean of Storms) was the landingsite. On November 14^th 1969 the Saturn V was launched, with the spacecraft: Yankee Clipper (CSM) and Intredpid (LM). The mission was achieved by the astronauts Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon and Alan Bean. On 19^th November 1969, Charles Conrad and Alan Bean became the third and fourth men on the Moon. There were two EVAs, with a 7 hour period of rest between the two sessions. The Intrepid stayed on the Moon about 31.5 hours. Re-entry and splash down were on 24^th November 1969.

Disaster!

Probably the most famous Apollo mission (after Apollo 11) was Apollo 13. The spacecraft were called Odyssey (CSM) and Aquarius (LM). The astronauts were James Lovell, Fred Haise and Jack Swigert. Thomas Mattingly was removed from the prime crew, after one back-up astronaut got the measles. Mattingly did not have had the measles before and therefore he was replaced by Jack Swigert.

Launched from Cape Canaveral on 11 April 1970, there were no problems, until the 13^th, about 56 hours after lift-off…
Swigert received orders for an 'O₂ tank stir'. Instead of a stir session, tank 2 exploded. Then followed the famous line, Houston, we've had a problem…

A lot of systems in the CSM were damaged by the explosion, so the crew had to go into the LM to survive. The astronauts were forced to go on ration. After four days, the crew splahed down in the ocean on 17^th April 1970. A few hours before re-entry, the crew filmed the damaged SM, after it was jettisoned.

On January 31^st 1971, Apollo 14 was launched. The astronauts were Alan Shepard, the first American in space, Edgar Mitchell and Stuart Roosa. On February 5^th 1971, Shepard and Mitchell went in the Antares to the lunar surface. Roosa kept the Kitty Hawk in lunar orbit.

The landing site for Shepard and Mitchell was Fra Mauro, the site where Apollo 13 would have landed. There were two sessions of EVA, with a period rest between them. The re-entry and splash down took place on 9^th February 1971.

J-Missions

Apollo 15 was launched on 26^th July 1971. It was the first of three advanced missions, intended to do real geological research on the Moon. The astronauts were David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. While Alfred Worden kept the CSM (Endeavour) in lunar orbit, Scott and Irwin went on 30^th July 1971 to the surface of the Moon, in the Falcon.

The crew used the Lunar Rover Vehicle (LRV or rover) to explore and examine the area around the landingsite, the Hadley-Apennine. In 67 hours, there were 4 EVAs, with a total time of 18.5 hours outside the LM. The most famous sample of the entire Apollo project was collected during this mission. This rock, known as the Genesis rock is believed to be a piece of the primordial lunar crust.

The rover proved to be very useful, the average speed was about 10 km/h. Although the rover expanded the exploration radius, the range was (for safety of the astronauts) limited. Re-entry took place on August 1971, although one parachute collapsed too early, the CM splashed down in sea safely.

On April 16^th 1972, Apollo 16 was launched. The crew consisted of John Young, Thomas Mattingly and Charles Duke. John Young en Charles Duke went to the Moon on April 20^th 1972 in Orion (LM) to the Descartes Highlands. Thomas Mattingly kept Casper (CSM) in lunar orbit.

This was the second mission with a lunar rover. In this mission, the astronauts drove 26.7 km in a total driving time of 5.5 hours with the rover. The total time of the EVAs was more than 20 hours. After 71 hours, the crew went back to the CSM. The crew returned home on April 27^th 1972.

The last lunar landing (for now) was Apollo 17. This was the first Apollo to be launched at night, on 6^th December 1972. Although the launch was in the night, visitors said they thought it was day… The CSM was called: America, the LM was called Challenger.

The last astronauts to walk on the Moon were Eugene Cernan and Hans Schmitt. The tocuhdown of the LM took place on December 11^th 1972. Ronald Evans stayed in the CSM. Harrison Schmitt was the first (and up to now the only) professional geologist to examine the lunar surface, in the Taurus-Littrow area.

The crew stayed approximately 75 hours on the Moon, more than 22 hours outside the LM. There was also a lunar rover used in this mission. This mission it drove 30.5 km. The last man to step into the LM for the last time untill now was Eugene Cernan, on December 14^th 1972. The re-entry and the splash down of the last Apollo mission took place on 19 December 1972.

End of an Era

At the end of the last EVA, Cernan spoke to the world the folowing words: (read from a plaque) Here man completed his first explorations of the Moon, December 1972 A.D. May the spirit of peace in which he came be reflected in the lives of all mankind.

After that, Cernan spoke in his own words to the world:

This is our commemoration that will be here until someone like us, until some of you who are out there, who are the promise of the future, come back to read it again and to further exploration and meaning of Apollo.

As I take man’s last steps from the surface, back home from some time to come - but we believe not too long in the into the future… I believe history will record that America’s challenge of today has forged man’s destiny of tomorrow.

And as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came, and, God willing as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Eugene Cernan

After Apollo 17, there were originally three more lunar missions scheduled, but all were scrapped due to budget cuts and lack of interest. It took 22 years before NASA returned to the Moon, with the Clementine mision of 1994, during which water ice was detected within the regolith. This finding was backed up by evidence from the Lunar Prospector in 1998.

With this supposed water, the Moon could serve as a launch site for missions to other planets. All four of the major space-faring regions (Russia, US, China & Europe) currently have plans to go to the moon, with those of the US and China being furthest advanced.

Sadly enough, President Nixon was right when he said: (during Apollo 17’s trip home)

As the Challenger leaves the surface of the Moon, we are consious not of what we leave behind, but of what lies before us. The dreams that draw humanity forward seem always to be redeemed, if we believe in them strongly enough and persue them with diligence and courage.

This may be the last time in this century that men will walk on the Moon, but space exploration will continue… U.S. President Richard Nixon, 14^th December 1972